1) Understanding Complete Sentences
A complete sentence must include two essential features: a subject and a verb—and these two features must work together.
For example—
I write.
The above example is a complete sentence because it has a subject, I, and a verb, write—and they both work together. The simple inclusion of a subject and verb, however, does not guarantee that the two will work together.
For example—
I writing.
While this sentence still includes a subject and a verb, the verb—written in its present progressive form—cannot stand without a helping verb, such as am.
For example—
I am writing.
Similarly, the simple inclusion of a noun does not guarantee that noun will function as a subject.
For example—
Writing the book.
The above example includes the word book, but book cannot serve as the subject because it serves as a direct object. It does not act. It receives action. This means the sentence still needs a subject.
For example—
I am writing the book.
In the above example, the word I becomes the subject.
Keep in mind that length does not determine the completeness of a sentence. Many complete sentences require only one or two words. Meanwhile, fragments can—and often are—dozens of words long.
2) Expressing Action:
Express action using simple declarative sentences. Begin with a subject. Directly follow that subject with a verb.
For example—
Morgan wanders.
Morgan is the subject, and wanders is the verb.
Or—
Jack sleeps.
Jack is the subject, and sleeps is the verb.
When needed, further specify the nature of the action by the inclusion of a prepositional phrase. Think of prepositions as words that tell the reader more about time, space, place, or direction.
For example—
Morgan wanders along the shore.
Along the shore is a prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition along.
Or—
Jack sleeps on the sand.
On the sand is a prepositional phrase, beginning with the preposition on.
When needed, tighten the association of these actions. Use coordination to combined them in a simple compound sentence.
For example—
Morgan wanders along the shore, and Jack sleeps on the sand.
A comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, but, yet, so, for) allow two complete sentences to combine into one complete sentence.
Keep your sentences as simple as possible. You may want to express a larger concept through a series of closely related smaller ideas, but you need not fit them all into the same sentence. Allow your larger idea to build by each succinct sentence supporting the next.
3) Expressing Concurrent Action:
Clarify simultaneous action by combining your two simple sentences with the conjunctions while or as. Understand that neither of these conjunctions shows coordination like the conjunctions listed in the previous section. Instead, these words create a dependent clause—a clause that cannot stand alone as a sentence. The dependent clause literally depends on the other half of the sentence, the independent clause.
For example—
Jack recites verses while Jim plays bongos.
Or—
While Jim plays bongos, Jack recites verses.
Jack recites verses is the independent clause. Jack recites verses could stand alone as a sentence. While is the conjunction. While Jim plays bongos is the dependent clause. This means that While Jim plays bongos cannot stand alone as a sentence.
Aside from expressing concurrent action, writers can use this structure to help direct the reader’ s attention. The dependent clause carries less emphasis than the other half of the sentence, the independent clause. Emphasis is placed on the part of the sentence that could stand alone. While expressing concurrent action, the above sentences emphasize Jack reciting verses. The writer, however, may shift this emphasis.
For example—
Jim plays bongos while Jack recites verses.
Or—
While Jack recites verses, Jim plays bongos.
The sentences still express the same concurrent actions, but now they emphasize Jim playing bongos.
Also notice that the writer only needs a comma when expressing the dependent clause first.
4) Expressing Sequential Action:
Express sequential action by creating a simple compound sentence. Do this by adding the word then after the comma and coordinating conjunction that combine the two complete sentences.
For example—
The sunlight fades, and then the mosquitoes arrive.
Note that the word then cannot function as any kind of conjunction. Then is an adverb, so it must be used after a coordinating conjunction when combining sentences.
Certain preposition, such as after, can also allow a writer to clearly express sequential action.
For example—
After the sunlight fades, the mosquitoes arrive.
Or—
The mosquitoes arrive after the sunlight fades.
This option turns one half of the sentences into a prepositional phrase, a type of dependent clause. This method of expression shifts emphasis to the other half of the sentence, the independent half. In this case, the arrival of the mosquitoes is then emphasized.
Similarly—
Jack waxes his board after he arrives at the beach.
Or—
After he arrives at the beach, Jack waxes his board.
Both sentences communicate sequential action, and both emphasize the waxing of the surfboard by expressing the arrival at the beach as a prepositional phrase, a type of dependent clause.
5) Expressing Contrast:
Express contrast with a simple compound sentence by using a comma and coordinating conjunction, as explained in the first chapter. Instead of the coordinating conjunction and, now use the coordinating conjunction but.
For example—
Morgan prefers the sand on the Gulf coast, but she prefers the waves on the Atlantic coast.
Or—
Morgan prefers the waves on the Atlantic coast, but she prefers the sand on the Gulf coast.
This method of expressing contrast allows the writer to equally emphasize both ideas. The writer forms a simple compound sentence with a comma and the coordinating conjunction but.
Much like the expressions of concurrent and sequential action, however, writers can also use certain conjunctions, such as although, to form a dependent clause that still clearly communicates contrast while also directing emphasis.
For example—
Although Morgan prefers the sand on the Gulf coast, she prefers the waves on the Atlantic coast.
Or—
Morgan prefers the waves on the Atlantic coast although she prefers the sand on the Gulf coast.
Here the writer places emphasis on Morgan’s preference for the Atlantic coast by composing that clause as the independent clause and the clause about the Gulf coast as the dependent clause.
Like the other dependent clauses, the above example only requires a comma when the writer places the dependent clause before the independent clause.
A few words on pronouns: Notice that the pronoun she switches clauses, allowing it to always appear after the antecedent, Morgan, or the word that the pronoun represents. This order helps maintain clarity.
6) Expressing Comparison:
Express comparisons with a declarative sentence, much like in the first section—but now use a compound subject, a compound direct object, or a compound object of the preposition.
For example—
Morgan and Jack photograph sunrises.
The names Morgan and Jack create a compound subject in the above sentence.
Or—
Morgan photographs sunrises and sunsets.
Now sunrises and sunsets create a compound object.
Or—
The laws in New Smyrna Beach and Daytona Beach permit people to drive across the sand.
Neither the subject, laws, or the object, people, are now compounded—instead, the object of the preposition, New Smyrna Beach and Daytona Beach is compounded.
Writers can also combine any of these comparative structures with a contrasting structure to compose one sentence that shows both ideas, side by side.
For example—
Morgan and Jack photograph sunrises, but Morgan photographs sunrises and sunsets.
Or—
Morgan photographs sunrises and sunsets, but Jack only photographs sunrises.
The second example includes the adverb only, which further focuses the reader’s attention on the writer’s explanation of exactly how the two photographers differ. The adverb only also prohibits readers from any overly literal interpretations of the first sentence, which might see the statements about what Morgan and Jack do photograph as no clear indication of what Jack does not photograph.
A few words on subject/verb agreement: Notice how the present tense verb shifts to accommodate the singularity or plurality of the subject. A compound subject functions like a plural subject, so the present tense verb loses its s.
For example—
Morgan photographs…
Verses—
Morgan and Jack photograph…
7) Expressing Conditional Statements
Construct conditional statements by composing two complete sentences and then placing the word “if” or “when” before the condition. This will turn the condition into a dependent clause, ready for pairing with the other sentence.
If the condition appears first (like in this sentence), a comma follows it. This punctuation tells the reader that the independent clause has begun.
For example—
If the heavy rains persist, Jack and Morgan will leave the beach.
If the condition appears second, however, the writer need not separate it with a comma.
For example—
Jack and Morgan will leave the beach if the heavy rains persist.
Notice the use of future tense in the independent clause. The action will happen, but it hasn’t happened yet—because the writer does not know if the specified condition will or will not come to fruition. This verb conjugation appears often among conditional statements because it often reflects the reality the writer wishes to express—but this does not mean conditional statements require this conjugation.
In cases where the conditional statement reflects an ongoing or habitual situation, using simple present tense makes more sense.
For example—
Jack and Morgan leave the beach if the heavy rains persist.
Or—
When the heavy rains persist, Jack and Morgan leave the beach.
Notice the verb leave, not will leave. This implies the situation has happened many times, will likely happen many more times, and the outcome will likely remain consistent.
8) Understanding Transitional Language
Transitions help tell readers how ideas connect. Writers use transitions to clarify the relationship between concepts, allowing the reader to better understand how the author’s points build upon each other in a meaningful manner. Without transitional thinking, the writer risks leaving the reader with a paper that functions little better than a bloated list of thoughts.
When forming effective and natural transitions, a writer benefits from a logically planned and carefully executed paper. To some extent, this type of purposeful writing will allow transitions to begin materializing as an organic result of a consciously constructed piece—rather than requiring the writer to forcefully retrofit connective language between sections of an otherwise complete draft.
For example, if composing an informative essay about learning to water ski, a writer may reasonably decide to organize the main body of the essay in a series of chronological steps. This structural decision largely determines the type of transitional language that the writer will use—in this case, all phrases that relate various positions and conditions with terms of relative order and time.
With this topic and structure in mind, the writer might transition from a paragraph that explains the skier’s initial posture in the water to a paragraph that explains the skier’s technique for pulling out of the water. This transition may take the shape of a sentence at the end of the paragraph about posture:
After the skier adopts this seated position and the driver straightens the rope, the skier can signal for the driver to push forward the throttle.
The writer may then complete this transition by pairing the above sentence with a related thought at the beginning of the next paragraph, the paragraph about pulling out of the water:
As the boat accelerates and the skier feels the resistance of the skyward-pointing skis pushing against the water, the skier should initially maintain his or her compact posture.
Just as the paper’s structure suggests, these transitions use elements of relative time like “after” and “as” to help clarifying the connection between the different thoughts in the informative essay. In this way, the reader will know more than just a list of steps for water skiing. The reader will also understand how these steps relate to each other.
When writing about other subjects that lend themselves to other structures, the types of transitions will change because the relationships between the ideas will also change.
To show a transition between separate evidence working toward the same conclusion, consider using adverbs such as furthermore and moreover.
To show a transition between cause and effect, consider using adverbs such as consequently and therefore.
To show a transition from a general concept to a specific application of that concept, consider using prepositional phrases such as for example and for instance.
To show a transition from evidence to resulting analysis, consider verbs such as suggests and indicates.
9) Understanding Purpose and Structure
Determine your objective. Your writing will benefit from a clear understanding of purpose. Be aware, however, that while a piece of writing may work toward one focused purpose, it may also incorporate many types of writing. For example, descriptive writing can play a critical part in an informative piece—or, similarly, informative and narrative writing can play a critical part in a persuasive piece. These overlaps continue.
Purposeful writing also means allowing function to determine form, rather than allowing form to dictate function. Resist the inclination to impose a particular structure on your writing simply for the sake of using that particular structure. The nearly ubiquitous imposition of the five-paragraph form serves as a prime example of this problem. While the five-paragraph form may provide a perfect fit for some content, it more often forces writers to manipulate their message into fitting this overly prescribed form. The five-paragraph form can work well if—but only if—the content of the piece happens to demand three paragraphs of content, book-ended by an introduction and conclusion. Otherwise, the five-paragraph form demands that the writer allow the form to determine the function—rather than the other way around.
Don’t design a subject to suite a structure. Design a structure to suite the subject.
10) Understanding Description
Use precise language. Select words with specific meanings. Avoid generalities, such as “good,” and relative intensifies, such as “very.” Organize your precise language with a structure specifically designed to house the paper’s content and enhance the reader’s understanding of the subject. For example, a description of a sunrise over the ocean might best be conveyed through a chronological structure if the writer aims to provide the reader with a sense of visual evolution, while a description of the same sunset might best be conveyed through a spatial structure if the writer aims to guide the reader’s imagination from the sand to the surf to the horizon, and so on, one visual strata at a time.
Some of the most useful descriptions take the form of narration. Consider a common writing dictate: Show; don’t tell. Allow your description to rely on precise verbs rather than extra adjectives. At best, adjectives will allow readers to know what a writer feels. Description through action, however, can allow readers to share some form of the writer’s reactions—and then actually feel what the writer feels.
For example, consider the following sentences:
Morgan seemed disappointed after the meeting with the potential investors, and Jack could tell her spirits continued to fall during the drive back to the marina. She knew the situation looked like it could be very bad for them.
Then consider how the same ideas may be expressed through more precise language:
Morgan let her business proposal slip into the trashcan as she left the meeting with the potential investors. As she and Jack drove back to the marina, she lit a Marlboro for the first time in two months. She knew Jack had already spent all his savings on the new charter boat.
Thoughts, Revised & Refined 